【第一周】休谟的道德哲学

休谟的道德哲学沿承了之前哲学遗留的一些问题：一是道德认识论，即我们是如何获取对善恶、正误、责任与义务等等的知识或信念的；二是道德的根源或者基础何在，是来自于情感或是理性（There has been a controversy started of late, much better worth examination, concerning the general foundation of Morals; whether they be derived from Reason, or from Sentiment）；三是道德要求（Moral requirements）是自然的或是契约形成的（出处：SEP, Hume on Moral’s philosophy）。 这三个问题自然不仅仅是从马基雅维利、霍布斯那儿顺承而来，实际上更与启蒙运动有着深刻的关联。文德尔班在《哲学史教程》中说，启蒙运动为实践哲学提出四个问题，即：道德的内容是什么？我们怎样认识道德的内容？伦理命令的合法性基于什么？什么使人采取道德行为？它们所围绕的是这样一个核心——伴随着个人重要性的不断提升，人越是考虑自己的幸福，就越是不得不去思考他与他人、集体、社会的关系：个人如何同他人的生活联结在一起，而集体生活又超越于个人生活。 在《道德原则研究》的第一章，休谟对于以上问题给出了大致的回答。道德的根源是情感，而且它能够唤起人们的行动。而相应的研究方法是：通过经验方法，从具体事件的比较中推导出一般原则来；而针对于科学方法，休谟则以其不适于人类不完美的天性而加以拒绝。对于道德根源的探究，则是通过分析被称为个人价值（Personal merit）的心理品质（Mental qualities）。我们只需要通过观察一下平日里所使用的语言，就能够判断出某种品质是受人褒扬或者遭人贬斥的。 As this is a question of fact, not of abstract science, we can only expect success, by following the experimental method, and deducing general maxims from a comparison of particular instances. The other scientific method, where a general abstract principle is first established, and is afterwards branched out into a variety of inferences and conclusions, may be more perfect in itself, but suits less the imperfection of human nature, and is a common source of illusion and mistake in this as well as in other subjects. 从第一章中，我们可以大致得出休谟研究道德哲学的方法是延续了他一贯的经验主义立场的。接下来，休谟从仁爱与正义两种品质入手，以此为例，展开了他的论述。 仁爱（benevolence）这种品质受人称赞是不言而喻的，而其中的原因则是仁爱所具有的效用（the utility）。效用，在休谟看来，这就是判定道德品质的标准（standard）。 Upon the whole, then, it seems undeniable, THAT nothing can bestow more merit on any human creature than the sentiment of benevolence in an eminent degree; and THAT a PART, at least, of its merit arises from its tendency to promote the interests of our species, and bestow happiness on human society. 这也就能够解释，为什么看起来是值得称道的行为，在某些情况下却并非如此。按具体情况下所可能产生的效用来斟酌选择行为，这一原则之后受到的抨击不必多说。但功利主义的原则虽然饱受各种争议，却是迄今为止最有实效的。 这一点同样也适用于正义。正义的价值至少部分来自于其用处，而它产生的唯一根源就是公共效用，其价值的唯一基础则是对于正义后果的反思（That public utility is the SOLE origin of justice, and that reflections on the beneficial consequences of this virtue are the SOLE foundation of its merit），这是休谟在正义一章中的主要论点。 正是因为正义的规则依赖于特定环境中所能发挥的效用，所以休谟认为，在极端恶劣的情境下，遵循正义并不会有任何用处，也就因此不可能产生正义，同理于物质充沛的环境，人人生活无忧，也不需要正义。但无论是霍布斯式的极端恶劣的环境，或是诗人笔下黄金时代，都是不可能的出现的，人类社会处在一个相对适中的环境当中，而正义在其中作用是维护社会秩序来使人们获得幸福和安全，这才是正义产生的根源。 So true is it, that this virtue derives its existence entirely from its necessary USE to the intercourse and social state of mankind. The use and tendency of that virtue is to procure happiness and security, by preserving order in society. 简而言之，第一部分所要的表达的观点是，若正义无用，则无有正义。第二部分则由此来考察因正义而延伸出的各项法律条文，这些条文中关键的是有关于私产和私产划分的，所秉承的观点仍然是：增进人类的利益是这些法律的唯一目的。休谟批评了宗教狂热，同时也对于政治中推崇极端平等的观点提出了驳斥。这延伸到对于正义的对象——所有权的讨论上来，休谟认为，对于所有权的定义和所有之物的判定，我们需要诉诸成文法、习俗等诸多因素；但它们无一例外都指向人类的利益。 对于正义和仁爱的分析，体现了休谟对于道德品质最为基本的观点之一： and since no moral excellence is more highly esteemed, we may conclude that this circumstance of usefulness has, in general, the strongest energy, and most entire command over our sentiments. It must, therefore, be the source of a considerable part of the merit ascribed to humanity, benevolence, friendship, public spirit, and other social virtues of that stamp; as it is the sole source of the moral approbation paid to fidelity, justice, veracity, integrity, and those other estimable and useful qualities and principles. 休谟为何将仁爱和正义拿来做具体说明，也许来自于他讲德性分作natural&artificial。 A character trait is a natural virtue when our approval of it is equally explicable from this basis. As we have seen, we approve of these traits because they are useful or intrinsically pleasing, either to the agent himself, or to society at large or some relevant section of it. An artificial virtue, while sharing this natural foundation, also requires the intervention of ‘artifice’ in order to emerge and to be approved of. Something is artificial if it is the product of convention, that is, of human rules and/or institutions. So ‘artificial’ is a purely descriptive term, with no pejorative connotations. Justice is no less of a virtue than its natural brethren. Like all moral obligation, justice is impersonal, requiring us to act well towards those for whom we have no naturally benevolent impulses. By contrast, unchecked passions such as private benevolence are partial.（Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Hume on Morality） [这一点来自休谟的政治论文集中《论原始契约》，在这篇文章中他反驳了洛克的契约论。在这本选集中有关于正义的探讨中，他所秉持的仍是：公共效益是公正的唯一根源；公正或公平的规则完全决定于人们所处的特定状况和环境，严格正常地遵守这些规则对公众所产生的实际效益是它们能够产生和存在的根源。] 在文本中，对于仁爱在本身具备卓越品质的统治者身上的体现，是锦上添花；而在德性平庸的人身上，则是必不可少的，他的立足点是个人。而对正义的论述，则是从社会效用（society utility）展开的。休谟否认正义是天然形成的，Justice as an artificial virtue。