福柯的权力、知识与话语
福柯的理论三个最重要的主题：
1. 话语的概念
2. 权力与知识
3. ‘subject’之问
首先福柯实现了一种从‘语言language’到‘话语discourse’的转变。他研究的不是语言，而是‘作为表达系统的话语discourse as a system of representation’。
Discourse is about the production of knowledge through language. But since all social practices entail meaning, the meanings shape and influence what we do – our conduct – all practices have a discursive aspect.
福柯借用了语言学中的‘话语’概念，但在这里话语同时关于语言和实践两者。他希望克服传统对语言和实践的区分。
Discourse constructs the topic. It defines and produces the objects of our knowledge.
Discursive formation 话语构建
Nothing has any meaning outside of discourse. The concept of discourse is not about whether things exist but about where meaning comes from.
我们使用话语这一术语来强调一种事实：每一个社会配置都是有意义的。
如果一个事物具有意义，我只能获得关于这个事物的知识。是话语，而非它们内在的东西本身，生产了知识。
历史化的话语——话语实践 historicizing discourse: discursive practices
福柯认为，话语、表达、知识和‘真理’都是radically historicized。
只有在一种特定的历史语境下，事物才有了含义并成为真实。不同的历史时期绝不可能发生同样的现象。
In each period, discourse produced forms of knowledge, objects, subjects and practices of knowledge, which differed radically from period to period, with no necessary continuity between them.
比如，mental illness就不是一个在各个历史时期都相同的客观事实。It was only within a definite discursive formation that the object, ‘madness’, could appear at all as a meaningful or intelligible construct.
Knowledge about and practices around all these subjects were historically and culturally specific. They did not and could not meaningfully exist outside specific discourse, i.e. outside the ways they were represented in discourse, produced in knowledge and regulated by the discursive practices and disciplinary techniques of a particular society and time. Far from accepting the trans-historical continuities of which historians are so fond. More significant were the radical breaks, ruptures and discontinuities between one period and another, between one discursive formation and another.
从话语到权力/知识 From discourse to power/knowledge
The relationship between knowledge and power, and how power operated within the institutional apparatus and its technologies (techniques).
福柯反对马克思主义的有问题的意识形态：
马克思认为，在每个时代，意识反映了社会经济基础，因此，ruling ideas来自那些统治资本主义经济的统治阶级，符合他们的dominant interests。
福柯反驳认为，这种理念试图将一切知识和权力之间的关系简化为阶级权力和阶级利益的问题。福柯并不反对阶级的存在，但他强烈反对马克思主义理论意识形态里这种对经济或阶级的权力元素的简化论reductionism。
福柯区分于马克思主义的两大命题：
1. 知识、权力与真理
2. 权力的新概念new conceptions of power
Knowledge linked to power, not only assumes the authority of ‘the truth’ but has the power to make itself true.
Regime of Truth.
新型权力概念
我们倾向于认为权力总是从上至下单向发生的，来自一个特定的源头。福柯认为权力并不是链状运行的，而是循环流通的。从来不是被一个中心垄断的。它总是通过一种网状组织开展和执行的。（Foucault 1980:98）这就意味着我们所有人，总在某种程度上陷入了这种循环之中，压迫者和被压迫者。并不是从某地或某个源头向下辐射。权力关系弥散到社会存在的各个阶层。
此外，权力并不只是消极的、压迫它希望控制的对象。它也是productive。它穿过之时会产生东西。是一个穿过整个社会主体的productive network。（Foucault 1980:119）
Foucault, M(1980) Power/Knowledge, Brighton, Harvester.
