书摘 | Norton Anthology 柏拉图与亚里士多德介绍篇

Plato

柏拉图所谈论的有关世界万物的哲学思辨：the nature of being; the question of justice, truth, beauty, and love

诗歌Poetry：Poetry as a mimesis of nature, a copy of objects in the physical world; 但是natural objects in the material world…are themselves only mutable copies of timeless universals, called Forms or Ideas. 诗歌是自然的摹仿，而自然又是永恒的形式/理念的摹仿→诗歌是摹仿的摹仿，是对于真理的偏离，而非接近真理

• The Forms constitute a realm of unchanging being to which the world of individual mutable objects is subordinate. Because the Forms are immutable, they are more real-and more true-than the changeable material world 形式是不变的、永恒的，是最真实的

1. The Form of the Good enjoys a unique status, for it is responsible for the being and intelligibility of the world as a whole形式负责世界整体的存在与可理解性

• 诗歌是一种灵感inspiration（而非由规则组成）：Ion《伊安篇》的苏格拉底：Poetry is not an art; it is a form of divine madness: “the poet is an airy thing, winged and holy, and he is not able to make poetry until he becomes inspired and goies out of his mind”

1. 诗歌与批评皆来自灵感的启发：不仅诗歌是一种divine-inspired madness，批评criticism也是如此；the god inspire the artist, who inspires the interpreter, who in turn, inspires the audience（因而他告诉Ion“you are powerless to speak of Homer, on the basis of knowledge or mastery”）批评并不比诗人更加理性，批评家的知识也不会更靠近真理

• 关于诗人应被逐出理想国：

1. 为什么：however divinely inspired, poets’ and critics’ knowledge is of a different order than, and the one decidedly inferior to, the knowledge of charioteers, fishermen, or philosophers 诗人和批评家的知识与渔夫、数学家和哲学家的知识属于不同类别，且前者低于后者，因为诗人不算真正认识到了世界（比如渔夫对于鱼的只是算是格物致知）
2. 环境：Socrates’ criticism of poetry and its representations appears to be directed against a culture that believed literally “that poets know all crafts, all human affairs.”苏格拉底在《理想国》中对于诗歌的批评只想一种将诗歌捧上至尊位的文化
3. literature should teach goodness and grace; the educational curriculum promotes respect for law, reason, authority, self-discipline, and piety文学与教育教化功能

• Philosophy与poetry是两种相对的实践：The world we perceive through the senses is illusory and deceptive凭感觉感知的世界具有欺骗意义（因为诗歌做的只是pale representations of nature，是一种假象，appearances），唯有通过哲学讨论以及思辨，同时基于数学逻辑，才能够进入真实的世界（包括measuring, counting, weighing）；哲学与诗歌认识世界的方式不同，他们的性质也不一样

1. 因而，与诗歌的inspiration不同，柏拉图在Academy中推行以辩证法dialectics、对话dialogue以及哲学逻辑philosophical reasoning为根基的学习方式

Academy的定位：as a school for statesmen where he could train a new kind of philosopher-ruler according to the principles set forth in his Republic.培养哲学王的地方

• 他不教授“修辞”rhetoric或者“劝说/说服”persuation，而是主要关注数学methematics，逻辑logic以及哲学philosophy

柏拉图作品的特点：从来不用自己的口吻说话，因而也很难确定柏拉图持有某种固定、绝对的观点：for the most part, Plato places his arguments in the mouths of characters who may or may not be based on historical persons. The speakers can never be assumed to be voicing Plato’s own views or the views of those whose names they bear.（在此注意，柏拉图的苏格拉底并非完全是历史人物的苏格拉底）

洞穴说： introduction to the theory of forms

Cratylus《克拉底洛篇》受到语言学的关注，因其涉及到对于名字/命名“正确性”the correctness of names的质疑：do they point unproblematically to the “nature of things”—that is, to the Forms—or are they merely a matter of convention？

书写比口语要低等：书写只是没有生命的符号；而真正好的记忆唯有哲学

Aristotle

学科分类；科学分析法

Poetics诗学（影响后世有关genre, prosody, style, structure和form的讨论）详见上次关于《诗学》的摘抄

• 文艺复兴“新古典主义”；二十世纪“俄国形式主义”“美国新批评”“法国结构主义”

关于诗歌

• 柏拉图：诗歌作为低一等的摹仿
• 亚里士多德：

1. poetry as a source of universal knowledge of human behaviour（不同于具体的历史）；poetry describes the actions of characters who might be any humans
2. 诗歌对于观众的积极作用：净化katharsis
3. concerned with the material and formal causes of poetry关注诗歌的物质和形式成因

Distinction between poetics and rhetoric 区分诗学与修辞

• 诗歌
• 修辞：the study of figures of speech，亚氏进一步定义，修辞是the ability to see the available means of persuasion

1. ² 关注修辞引发的观众情感：the public ends of language→对后来的读者接受理论reader-response theory产生影响
2. ² 海德格尔的阐释学中：how response is a factor in interpretation

• 对于亚里士多德来说，他并不排斥将pedagogical & social end和诗歌本身的形式特质同时作为研究重点

哲学研究

• 柏拉图：fundamental concept of transcendent Ideas or Forms that govern and generate reality；works from deduction使用演绎法, drawing particular conclusions from his general metaphysical concept of being
• 亚里士多德：on a more pragmatic basis than Plato, looking at nature and the objects of the real world；works from induction使用归纳法, drawing his general conclusions from the particular objects he observes

研究自然事物：四因论